Design and Construction of Japanese Gardens

Types of Japanese Gardens
1. Hills and Pond
2. Dry Landscape
3. Tea Gardens for Tea Ceremonys
4. Strolling Gardens
5. Courtyard Style

Planning the Garden

*You should take advantage of the natural features of your land.
*When placing living quarters you should choose a flat shiny place with a good drainage system.

Making A Map

1.Know the topography of the land and you should have a map

2. You should then go and make a sketch of the land and all of the natural things that are in it.
3. You should make a list of the materials that you want to put into it
4. Once you find those objects you should write down the sizes shapes and prices of each.

5. Then make your final plans

Roping and Staking

*You should rope off the areas were you think that things should go.

Making a Pond

*Most ponds are either started by natural puddels or by digging out a thin layer over natural cavities, then leading water to them

Using Rock
Three Types of Rocks
1. Mountain Rocks
2. Sea Rocks
3. River Rocks

* Rocks are often used to symbolis hills, seas, streams and other natural sceneries
* When placing the rocks you should place them all in one section, then you should pick the main rock to be placed in the dominating place in the arrangement.
* When useing gravel there are many varites of it. There are all black, all white, and multi-colored. The gravel can be used to make pathways along the garden.

Dacia, in ancient geography the land of the Daci or Getae, was a large district of Central Europe, bounded in to the north by the Carpathians, to the south by the Danube, to the west by the Tisa (Tisza river, in Hungary), and to the east by the Tyras (Dniester or Nistru, now in eastern Moldova). It thus corresponds in the main to modern Romania and Moldova. The capital of Dacia was Sarmisegetusa. The inhabitants of this district are considered to belong to Thracian stock. The Dacians were known as Geton (plural Getae) in Greek writings, and as Dacus (plural Daci) and Getae in Roman documents; also as Dagae and Gaete — see the late Roman map Tabula Peutingeriana. Ancient writers are unanimous in considering the Getae the same as the Daci. There were three distinct historical periods of Dacia. * One was the Dacia of King Burebista, stretching from Bug river in what is today the Ukraine to the Danube river in what is modern day Slovakia, and from Balkan mountains in what is modern Bulgaria to Transcarpathia in what is modern dayUkraine. * The second one was the Roman province Dacia Trajana, established as a consequence of the Dacian Wars during 101-106AD, comprising of the regions known today as Banat, Oltenia and Transylvania. * The third one was the Roman province Dacia Aureliana, reorganised inside former Moesia Superior after the abandonment of former Dacia to the Goths and Carpi in 271AD. Accordingly the territory of Dacia varied according to the above timeline. Towards the west it may originally have extended as far as the Danube where it runs from north to south at Waitzen (Vacz). Julius Caesar in his De Bello Gallico (book 6) speaks of Hercynia forest extending along the Danube to the territory of the Dacians. Ptolemy puts the eastern boundary of Dacia Trajana as far back as the Hierasus (Siret river, in modern Romania).

Sarmizegetusa

On the top of orastie Mountains, well guarded by the natural towers and waves of the highs, there is over 2000 years a complex of fortifications of which remarcable is the Sarmizegetusa fortress from Gradistea Muncelului, a political and military centers of the Dacians. The ruins show pieces of that was one the jewell and pride of the old Dacian State.

The fortress, a quadrilateral formed by massive stone blocks, was constructed on five terraces, on an area of almost 3 ha. In the fortress the roads were paved with stones. Near the ruins of the fortress there are the ruins of some constructions, probable with religious character: The big quadrilateral Sanctuary and the little round Sanctuary. The stones from the litlle sanctuary are put in a certain order, symbolizing the sun rays, having of course, a role of a calendar. The ruins of a temple and a guard tower, fragments of ceramics, fire places, tools and installations of spring water collection, are proofs of the life on this places.

Some inscriptions descovered on the stone blocks of the sanctuaries, coins, arms as well as a ceramic vessel with the stamp “Decebalus per Scorilo” (“Decebal son of Scorilo”) have given to the researchers the possibility to consider that this settlement existed in the times when in Dacia was rulled by Burebista and next Decebal.

After the defeat of the Dacians the fortress was conquerred by the Romans, which established here a military garrison, from which we can see the ruins of a building and of a bath.

Sarmizegetusa was the capital of Dacian, the main political and religious centre of the Dacian kingdom. Around it they built an entire system of fortifications. Sarmizegetusa was split into three parts, a civil area, the sacred area, and the fortification itself. Sarmizegetusa contained the most important industrial workshops because of its importance. The Dacian kings and a number of nobles resided within the capital along with various tradesmen, constructors, doctors and other workers. The Fortification Access into the capital from the Mures valley was protected and controlled by fortifications at Costesti and Blidaru and also by several solitary towers situated close to the road. The fortifications from Cucuis-Golu and from Hulpe Top, along with several other towers, protected the way to the capital from two valleys, Cucuis and Sibisel. From the west it was protected by the Piatra Rosie fortifications, and the Linear fortifications from Cioclovina-Ponorici. In addition to these the capital was protected by fortifications at Capalna, Banita and Tilisca. The Dacian capital was built upon the most practical vantage point in the Gradiste mountains around 1,000 metres high. The walls of the fortification surrounded the mountain according to the configuration of the terrain and were built in the classical style that was called “murus dacicus”. As with Costesti and Bildaru, they built bunkers at the highest point of the west side. Archaeologists cannot be certain if the fortress had a bulwark because of the later devastation and subsequent rebuilding by the Romans. In the interior wooden barracks for the soldiers were discovered. A part of the wall was destroyed because of the agreement between the Romans and the Dacian‘s from the wars of 101AD and 102AD and rebuilt before the war of 105AD. The fortress suffered heavy damage in the last siege, and the roman reconstructions didn’t use the Dacian techniques, nor respect the original plan. The new roman plan increased the area to twice the size. The Civil Settlement Whilst rebuilding the wall the Romans used large blocks of stone from the civil buildings of Sarmizetusa which, suggest the original constructions were of a considerable size. The civil settlement was made up of houses, workshops, drainage facilities, and fresh water sources. In the house of one Dacian noble, a water supply was discovered that still functions today.  The majority of the terraces have not yet been researched. The archaeologists know that the entire area was excavated and terraced by the Dacian‘s and the artificial terraces were reinforced by thick walls. The civil buildings were constructed from wooden and clay materials however, there are few remains of these due to decay over time. The archaeologists found only rocks from the base of the buildings, remains of the walls, carbonized pillars, clay floors and fireplaces. The Houses The houses can be grouped into three categories: single room dwellings, multi-roomed dwellings, and multi-sided buildings, i.e. octagonal. The single rooms were built directly on to the ground and were few in number. The houses with two or more rooms were constructed around supporting pillars, dug into the ground or a rock base. The majority of the dwellings constructed were multi-roomed. The circular and multi-sided dwellings usually had one room though some consisted of one or two levels of equal dimensions.  In one of the houses that was excavated a wooden box with two iron handles, containing medical equipment has been found. Inside this box the following items were found: five small pottery phials which probably contained ointment, one scalpel and a pumice stone with astringent properties.  Close to the houses were several outbuildings, including granaries.  The wealthiest households were built close to the fortifications and water sources, or ‘Tau’, thus creating a neighbourhood of aristocrats. Close to these they built a terrace upon which they probably built the town square. Workshops and Utilities Workshops were probably only built in wood and therefore it has been difficult to exactly determine their plan. However we know that inside the settlement three large and several other smaller workshops were constructed. From archaeological evidence we can see that one of these larger workshops was used as an iron foundry and the others were used to make iron goods.  In the iron foundry they have found a total of eight ovens, used for extracting iron from iron ore. In one of the ovens two drawknives (wood working tools) were discovered, bearing the mark ‘Herreni’ from Aquileia, Northern Italy. (We are uncertain of how they got there). The sites at Sarmizegetsua, Fetele Albe and Fata Cetei are probably the most important civil settlements from the Orastie Mountains.  They were all built on a large scale and some distance from the nearest water source.  For example the water supply at Sarmizegetsua was taken from three springs and transported through terracotta pipes to storage tanks and from there further pipes distributed the water to some houses, workshops and religious buildings. Drainage systems, both open and buried, were built in order to effect the removal of rainwater from the buildings. In the sacred areas the drains were cut into the limestone to ensure that rain water from the mountains was also diverted away. Sacred Areas All of the sacred buildings were constructed on large man-made terraces. There are two types of sanctuaries, circular and rectangular. All were built between the reigns of Burebista and Decebal (circa 86BC – 106AD). At Samizegetsua the first constructions were built using limestone and later buildings employed andesite. In the large circular sanctuary, wooden posts have been placed within the walls during the Communist era to give a more impressive look. However there is no evidence to suggest that the poles should actually be there. There are also three rectangular sanctuaries, one of which is much larger than the other two.  Close to the smaller of these sanctuaries and the circular sanctuary mentioned above, sits the small circular disc, called the ‘Andesite Sun’, which is a very important site. Within its centre sits yet another smaller disc which has a radius of 1.46 metres.  The ‘Sun’ is divided by ten spokes, creating arcs at its circumference measuring 2.76 metres.  Protruding from the edge of the ‘Sun’ is a line made from rock pointing north. Images:

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Muzica bizantină, arta, literatura populară şi poezia cultă aproape în întregime gravitau în jurul religiei, erau concentrate în biserică sau erau în dependenţă de serviciul liturgic.

Literatura bizantină s-a format sub influenţa creştinismului şi a antichităţii greceşti. Scriitorul va manifesta o predilecţie constantă pentru aluziile mitologice. Cultul literaturii este principal, dar sursele de informaţie sunt bogate, variate, incluzând şi subiecte, teme sau motive literare orientale, precum şi aspecte pitoreşti din viaţa bizantină.

Sunt multe genuri literare: povestiri, bibliografi, opere de retorică, amintiri, satire, romane, etc. Astfel, Theodorus II Lascaris a fost un cunoscut scriitor de satire.

Caracteristica cea mai evidentă a literaturii bizantine este tradiţionalismul său. Literatura şi activitatea literară au constituit graniţa cea mai de preţ a conştiinţei de sine bizantine.

Alături de impresionanta operă istoriografică, ceea ce îl preocupa pe omul de litere bizantin era retorica. Nu este vorba doar despre “retorica literară” ci şi de o mare producţie de opere ecleziastice sau laice.

Caracteristică literaturii bizantine este si cultivarea unor genuri şi specii literare minore, a unor compoziţii de fractură fragilă, miniaturală.

Poezia lirică bizantină era religioasă şi cântată fără acompaniament muzical. Poeţii compuneau mai întâi muzica, apoi textul. Muzica bizantină cultă era strâns legată de Biserică. Or, tocmai această muzică religioasă, ”cântul bizantin”, a constituit – împreună cu artele plastice-contribuţia adusă de Bizanţ culturii occidentale.

Muzica Bizantină este cântată pe o singură voce, necunoscând armonia decât foarte târziu. În cântul liturgic vur apărea şi instrumente dar aceste vor susţine cântul, nu-l vor acompania armonic. Imnurile se cântau la slujbele de dimineaţă, seară şi la liturghii.

Cele trei forme ale imnografiei sunt:

a) troparul- imn scurt, de o singură strofă, având o structură metrică variată ;

b) codacul- constând din 15-30 de tropare, având aceeaşi structură metrică variată;

c) canonul- o compoziţie literaro-muzicală foarte lungă, din nouă părţi, fiecare formată din mai multe tropare şi referindu-se la cele nouă ode biblice.

În Bizanţ erau într-un an 179 sărbători. Actorii erau de o moralitate dubioasă, dar erau celebri şi câştigau mult. Piesele clasice erau înlocuite de mim Epoca de aur a acestui teatru a fost perioada iconoclastă, dar existenţa şi succesul lui a continuat până în sec. XV.

Biserica a înţeles că un divertisment atât de popular ar putea deveni un atractiv instrument de propagandă religioasă în rândurile maselor. În acest scop, se impusese preoţilor să adopte anumite gesturi rituale în timpul oficierii slujbei, iar imnurile cântate să introducă melodii profane, cântate pe străzi.

La sfârşitul sec. IX în bisericile bizantine se prezintă episoade dramatice cu subiecte biblice. În Bizanţ acest teatru era scris de clerici, jucat de diaconi, ţi numai în interiorul bisericii.

În sec IV şi V, arhitectura rămâne în cadrele stilistice ale antichităţii târzii.

Din sec VI datează faimoasa capodoperă a arhitecturii bizantine sf. Sofia din Constantinopol.

Ca toate clădirile religioase bizantine, exteriorul este simplu, sever, chiar monoton, lipsit fiind de faţade ornamentale. Interiorul e luminat de 40 ferestre de la baza cupolei. Cupola reprezintă bolta cerului, iar partea centrală – spaţiul terestru.

În acelaşi sec. se realizează alte tipuri de arhitectură sacră: biserica ale cărei arce se prelungesc în formă de boltă; planul de cruce greacă şi cu cinci cupole, câte una pe fiecare braţ al crucii şi una centrală.

În sec. IX, după perioada iconoclastă, în arhitectura bizantină devine tot mai frecventă biserica pe plan de cruce greacă. Apare şi ornamentaţia exterioară a bisericilor. Începând cu sec. X, decoraţia este mai bogată. Din sec. XV, exteriorul e ornat şi cu sculpturi şi fresce.

Perioada a treia din istoria arhitecturii bizantine începe cu dinastia Comnenilor: construcţie cu cupola şi întreaga siluetă mai elevate. Alt moment din această serie este Chora: cea mai elegantă ca linie şi mai somptuoasă ca decoraţie biserică bizantină (în afară de sf .Sofia) ; aceasta era decorată cu mozaicuri celebre.

În curând sculptura în ronde bosse va dispărea aproape complet în Bizanţ. Această sculptură deţinea un loc secundar în arta bizantină.” Era prea materială şi realistă pentru a-şi găsi loc într-o artă concepută să reprezinte numai prototipuri eterne.”(Wl. Tatarkiewicz)

O atenţie merită doar basorelieful. Începând cu sec. VI, relieful plastic se aplatizează tot mai mult, eliminând impresia de profunzime, neglijând senzaţia de volum, preferând contururile fixe şi geometrice.

Temele iconografice bizantine şi modalitatea de prezentare a lor au suferit o influenţă orientală evidentă.

Dumnezeu – Tatăl nu e niciodată reprezentat. Hristos e figurat în ipostaze diferite. Astfel, în primele sec. Figura lui este blândă, milostivă; în epoca ereziilor şi după victoria bisericii Hristos e înfăţişat ca un luptător.

Alături de arhitectură şi icoană, contribuţia cea mai de seamă a bizanţului la arta universală este mozaicul.

Mozaicul era genul de artă prin mijlocirea căruia strălucirea lumii şi a culorilor apropia spiritul de perfecţiunea invizibilă. Avânduşi originile în mozaicul roman, mozaicul bizantin se va îndepărta foarte curând de spiritul realist al acestuia, folosindu-se de imagini solemne plasate pe un fond de aur pentru a sugera supranaturalul credinţei.

Primele capodopere nu apar în capitala Bizanţului, figurile umane vor apărea doar la sfârşitul sec. VI. Centrul cel mai important al tehnicii mozaicului este în Italia.

În istoria artei bizantine, iconoclasmul avea urmări negative, dar şi pozitive.

Iconoclasmul interzicea reprezentarea sfinţilor, a lui Hristos, a Fecioarei şi în primul rând a lui Dumnezeu în formă umană. Mozaicurile figurative şi icoanele au fost distruse.

Odată cu sfârşitul acestei faze s-a produs o puternică reacţie care a dus la cea de-a doua fază – cea de apogeu – a mozaicului bizantin.

Compoziţiile simple şi clare, cu puţine personaje, sunt acum mai libere. Acestea sunt tratate în dimensiuni diferite: dimensiunile cele mai mari sunt rezervate lui Iisus şi Fecioarei, apostolii apar mai mici, sfinţii şi mai mici s.a.m.d.

Originea icoanelor trebuie căutată în regiunile Siriei, Egiptului şi Palestinei unde începuseră să fie venerate chipurile unor martiri, sihaştri, episcopi.

În primele secole ale creştinismului cultul icoanelor era interzis de Biserică; din sec. VI ea a devenit un element al cultului. Ele erau produse într-un număr enorm dar, cu rare ocazii, de o calitate artistică îndoielnică. Figura sfinţilor era un pic alungită şi plasată pe un fundal auriu.

În Ţările Româneşti, influenţa Bizantină a pătruns prin intermediul meşterilor şi artiştilor sârbi (Mănăstirea Cozia). După înfiinţarea Mitropoliei din Ţara Românească domnitorii români au adus meşteri din Bizanţ a căror contribuţie s-a manifestat magistral în arhitectura şi frescele Bisericii Domneşti din Curtea de Argeş. Influenţa bizantină se remarcă şi în Moldova unde însă arhitectura bisericilor preferă, în locul modelelor bizantine, influenţele goticului care au dus la crearea elegantului “stil moldovenesc”.

O mare răspândire a cunoscut stilul bizantin în arta Occidentului. Remarcăm stilul şi decorarea cu mozaicuri a unor mari biserici din Franţa, Italia, Elveţia şi apoi mai târziu în Germania.

Retezat National Park is the oldest National Park in Romania; it was established in 1935 and it‘s mai objectives were to conserve the landscape and the endemic flora found here. Altitudes vary between 794m at the park entry on Râu Mare valley and 2509m at Peleaga Peak.

Retezat Mountains have some of the most beautiful landscapes in South-Eastern Europe. The massif is crossed by many tourist trails on which hikers can admire the landscape and enjoy the wilderness of this area. The more trained climbers can find some climbing areas, of which Colţii Pelegii is one well known. Camping sites, cabins and refuges in and around the park are attractive and waiting to accommodate tourists.

Flora is known to be very rich, with almost 1200 plant species from about 3600 found in Romania. Having a third of the Romania flora present here was one of the main reasons to designate the area as a National Park.

Fauna is also very rich, mainly because of the diversity of habitats found here, but also because the human impact is still small. There are no permanent settlements inside the park.

At the end of 2006, the Park Administration successfully concluded the BCMP project funded by GEF through WB. We also begun the implementation of the Life/Natura project LIFE05 NAT/RO/000165 (Conservative Management of the Alpine Area in the Retezat National Park as a Nautura 2000 Site).